Theory Review

By

Christopher Jones

B. Chang.

Ball State University

EDAC 635

9/17/2016

The “father” of adult learning theory was Malcolm Knowles (1913-1997). He called his theory andragogy (the design and delivery of instruction for adults), to distinguish it from pedagogy (the design and delivery of instruction for children and adolescents).

There are six assumptions that underlie the andragogic model of learning:

·         Adults need to understand the value of learning something. Learning must be relevant to their lives in some way.

·         Adult learners are self-directed and want to be perceived as such. They resist efforts of others to impose learning upon them.

·         In contrast to children, adults bring their own life experiences to learning.

·         Adults also bring a “readiness to learn” to the learning experience. Learning takes place for adults at developmentally appropriate times (for example, when they receive a promotion).

·         Adults are motivated to learn those things that will help them in their lives. Instruction for adults is best presented as offering improvement to their personal or professional lives.

·         Adult learners are extrinsically motivated and goal-oriented. They learn for the purpose of improving job skills, getting a raise, increasing self-esteem, and so forth.

The adult learner brings unique challenges to the learning environment. With work responsibilities, family commitments, and community activities, adult learners typically have little time to pursue formal learning. Learning opportunities for adults exist in a variety of settings ranging from a formal institution to a place of employment. It is important to acknowledge prior knowledge and experiences of learners, including their ability to recognize their own skills as lifelong learners. (Merriam, 1999).

We all know that learning in the workplace is driven by considerations of time and efficiency. Training is time-consuming and expensive to develop and administer. Employers want to minimize the amount of time spent in training, while employees want the time they spend in training to be of immediate value.

At a deeper level, adults often find great personal meaning in their work. Adults usually make tremendous investments in their careers—pursuing degrees and other educational qualifications; working long hours; forming working relationships with colleagues and clients; at times fighting political battles for power, recognition, and advancement. Much of the adult worker’s self-identity is closely tied to the workplace.

So how do you design learning that is meaningful for the adult learner? First, know your audience. While audience analysis is always an important part of the ID process, it is critical when designing instruction for adults. Because instruction must be relevant to learner needs, be sure to take time to understand the characteristics and needs of the target population. Second, watch your tone. The language and tone you use should not “talk down” in a pedagogical manner. Instead, acknowledge the professionalism and expertise that your learners bring to the table. Thirdly, Keep them motivated. Learning must be perceived to be of value to the adult learner, and it must satisfy some internal drive or need. Make clear connections between learning activities and the learner’s life. Make sure your learners know why they need this training and what benefits it will offer them. Fourthly, respect their time. Adult learners usually have a number of obligations that limit the time available to them to pursue learning. Workplace learning must not place an undue burden or take learners away from their jobs. Furthermore, to be perceived as of value, learning must teach skills the learner will use immediately. Make your learning objectives and strategies succinct and focused on behavioral change back on the job. Lastly, let them practice. Give your learners opportunities to practice what they have learned, both individually and collaboratively. Help them make the connection between what they’ve learning in your course and how they’ll apply it on the job.

As you design and develop, remember that adult learners expect learning to have a practical, goal-oriented focus. They’re self-directed and don’t want to have training imposed upon them. Although there are certainly cases in which training is required of adults (for example, as a condition of employment or promotion), adults expect learning to have tangible effects on their lives: to qualify them for a position, to teach them skills that make their lives easier, to enhance their sense of self-worth.

With these considerations in mind, be respectful of your learners. Acknowledge their time, prior learning, and abilities. Never forget that the adult learner always has something to bring to the learning experience that will enrich it and bring value to other learners.

The second theory is that of action learning. Action learning is a commonly used term in many discussions regarding adult learning in a variety of business settings. Action learning is an approach to solving real problems that involves taking action and reflecting upon the results, which helps improve the problem-solving process, as well as the solutions developed by the team. The action learning process includes: It holds many similarities to learning communities, discussed at length in the ebook chapter on Learning Communities. If it is to be distinguished, action learning is basically the small components that create the main team involved in a learning community. Action learning has been compared with project work, learning communities and various forms of simulation used in management development. It has been more widely used recently for organizational problems (Yorks, 2000).

"Action learning is defined as an approach to working with, and developing people, which uses work on a real project or problem as the way to learn. Participants work in small groups or teams to take action to solve their project or problem, and learn how to learn from that action. A learning coach works with the group in order to help them learn how to balance their work, with the learning from that work (O'Neil, 2000, p.44)."

Action learning has many educational applications. Because Action learning has been demonstrated to be very effective in developing a number of individual leadership and team problem solving skills (Leonard and Marquardt, 2010), it has been used extensively as a component in corporate and organizational leadership development programs. Because complex problems require many skills, individual team members can develop a customized learning agenda for themselves. This strategy is quite different from the "one size fits all" curriculum that is characteristic of many training and development programs.

Components of Action Learning:

·         The first part of action learning is creating action groups based on programmed learning, "the expert knowledge" and learning or real world experiences. These are small groups, generally consisting on 3 or 4 people.

·         Emphasis is placed on diversifying these small groups so that each group is best equipped to contribute to the learning community.

·         A learning coach is designated for each group. Together, the learning coaches also form a group.

·         From there, a project group leader is chosen. Both the project group leader and the learning coaches act as organizers, facilitators and overall motivators for the action groups (O'Neil, 2000).

·         Action learning involves learning from experience through reflection and action with the support group.

·         It is important that the groups remain constant and have duration, meaning the opportunity to establish themselves over a solid time period (Wade, 1999).

Advantages/Strengths:

·         Process used in forming groups

·         Balanced and diverse groups enhance the learning process and allow significant contributions to the learning community

·         Utilization of group dynamics

Disadvantages/Weaknesses:

·         Struggle constantly with the balance between accomplishing their task and learning from it.

·         Difficult to ensure consistency across groups and across sessions of any program.

·         The challenge of group dynamics.

The next theory is that of experimental learning. Experiential learning is a learning theory that is learner-centered and operates on the premise that individuals learn best by experience. A good way to describe this theory is "learning by doing". Experiential learning thus has the learner directly involved with the material being studied instead of just thinking and talking about that material.

Components of Experiential learning:

·         Is a cyclic process involving setting goals, thinking, planning, experimenting and making decisions, and finally action, followed by observing, reflecting and reviewing.

·         Uses participants' own experience and their own reflection about that experience, rather than lecture as the primary approach to learning. Experiential learning theory allows for the generation of understanding and allows for the transfer of skills and knowledge.

·         Involves doing something and discovering what it is like, how it made the learner feel, what it meant to the learner, i.e. experiential learning is their experience and no one else's.

·         Is, therefore, particularly effective in adult education as it addresses the cognitive, emotional and the physical aspect of the learner.

Advantages/Strengths:

·         Experiential learning theory builds on experience. This is especially important in adult learning because simply by living, adults bring a wealth of experience to every learning situation they face.

·         Experiential learning theory is a holistic learning approach.

·         Experiential learning theory is most effective when the learning has intrinsic motivation which is a common characteristic in adult learning.

Disadvantages/Weaknesses:

·         Experiential learning theory does not take into account differences in cultural experiences or conditions.

·         It is less clear where elements of learning such as goals, purpose and intentions fit into experiential learning theory.

·         It may not help us understand and explain change and new experiences.

Self-Directed Learning is the last and final theory I am going to discuss. Self-directed learning is not a new concept. In fact, much has been written about it. Unfortunately, however, it is a notion that has a variety of interpretations and applications in the corporate training arena. Typical, narrow interpretations involve simply giving learners some sort of choice in their learning. For example, allowing learners to select one or more courses from a curriculum, or, in cases of structured on-the-job training, allowing employees to choose what pre-designed modules (e.g., a video tape, workbook, special reading, etc.) to complete. In terms of e-learning, the fact that learners can determine which modules or scenarios to review is also frequently touted as self-directed learning. The fact that the learner has a choice and makes a decision to select this or that module does not constitute true self-directed learning. "Informal and incidental learning is at the heart of adult education because of its learner-centered focus and the lessons that can be learned from life experience (Marsick, 2001, p.25)." Self-directed learning in an example of informal learning. It is defined as the process in which individuals take on the responsibility for their own learning process by diagnosing their personal learning needs, setting goals, identifying resources, implementing strategies and evaluating the outcomes. In 1999, more than 95% of adults participated in self-directed learning. Typical learners spend an average of 15 hours per week on a self-directed learning project (Rager, 2003).

There are three categories involved with self-directed learning: the goals, the process, and the learner. In an adult learning context, the goals are generally self-determined, as is the process. Self-directed learning can be enhanced with facilitation, particularly through providing resources. Motivation is key to a successful self-directed learning experience. This is very similar to the motivation that takes place in children during a self-regulated learning experience.

Advantages/Strengths:

·         Integrated with daily routines.

·         Triggered by an internal or external motivation

·         An inductive process of reflection and action

·         Linked to learning of others

Disadvantages/Weaknesses:

·         Learners are self-directed depending on the situation. They will not necessarily be self-directed in all situations.

·         Not all adults prefer the self-directed option, and even the adults who practice self-directed learning also engage in more formal educational experiences such as teacher-directed courses.

·         Because it is unstructured, learners can easily be distracted by their own needs, assumptions, values, and misperceptions.

·         Research has shown that some adults are unable to engage in self-directed learning because they lack independence, confidence, or resources.

·         In recent years, less research has been conducted on self-directed learning

Adult Learners are motivated by two things the opportunity to gain new skills, knowledge, and attitudes to improve their work performance and the opportunity to improve family life and health, enjoy the arts and physical recreation, participate in a hobby, or simply increase their intellectual capital. It is our role as educators to use these theories and many others to find the best way to connect to those in our classrooms or the venue in which we educate. The role of the teacher and learner is a very unique and special type of relationship. The teacher and learner roles aren’t solidified by age or experience but that of the teacher being the one with a lesson or skill or a knowledge that the learner is lacking. The learner comes to the teacher with a need to know what the teacher has to share. We as humans in my opinion have an obligation and right to aid and help one another be the best that we each can be. Throughout all history, the greatest discoveries and achievements are done with individuals with the support of others striving for things just beyond their reach and not stopping till it’s obtained. Our country, The United States of America has always benefited from groups striving for a better life and a better way of doing things. From the pilgrims, to the founding fathers, to the pioneers of the industrial age, to formations of what our country is today. The sum of the striving group is always more powerful than the individual on its own. Working with those around us that we share ideas, culture, values and beliefs with are those best suited to engage us into a teacher/learner environment. The more we can understand one another’s backgrounds and culture then we have our hand on the pulse of how that learner is who they are today sitting in front of us.

Tables:

	The main theoretical ideas	Summary of how to apply the main theoretical ideas in practice
Idea 1	Andragogy - Knowles	Adults need to understand the value of learning something. Learning must be relevant to their lives in some way. Adult learners are self-directed and want to be perceived as such. They resist efforts of others to impose learning upon them. In contrast to children, adults bring their own life experiences to learning. Adults also bring a “readiness to learn” to the learning experience. Learning takes place for adults at developmentally appropriate times (for example, when they receive a promotion). Adults are motivated to learn those things that will help them in their lives. Instruction for adults is best presented as offering improvement to their personal or professional lives. Adult learners are extrinsically motivated and goal-oriented. They learn for the purpose of improving job skills, getting a raise, increasing self-esteem, and so forth.
Idea 2	Action Learning	Action learning is defined as an approach to working with, and developing people, which uses work on a real project or problem as the way to learn. Participants work in small groups or teams to take action to solve their project or problem, and learn how to learn from that action. A learning coach works with the group in order to help them learn how to balance their work, with the learning from that work.
Idea 3	Experimental Learning	Experiential learning is a learning theory that is learner-centered and operates on the premise that individuals learn best by experience. A good way to describe this theory is "learning by doing". Experiential learning thus has the learner directly involved with the material being studied instead of just thinking and talking about that material.
Idea 4	Self-Directed Learning	Self-directed learning is not a new concept. In fact, much has been written about it. Typical, narrow interpretations involve simply giving learners some sort of choice in their learning. The fact that the learner has a choice and makes a decision to select this or that module does not constitute true self-directed learning.

References:

Knowles, M.S. (1980). The Modern Practice of Adult Education: From Pedagogy to Androgogy. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall/Cambridge.

Kolb, D.A. and Fry, R. (1975). “Toward and Applied Theory of Experiential Learning” in C. Cooper (ed.) Theories of Group Process .London: John Wiley.

Leonard, H.S. and Marquardt, M.J. (2010). The evidence for the effectiveness of action learning. Action learning: Research and practice, 7, 2, 121-136.

Marsick, V. J. & Watkins, K. E. (2001). Informal and incidental learning. New Directions for Adult & Continuing Education, v. 89, p. 25-34.

Merriam, S. B. (2001). Andragogy and self-directed learning: Pillars of adult learning theory. New Directions for Adult & Continuing Education, v. 89, p. 3-14.

O'Neil, J. & Lamm, S.L. (2000). Working as a learning coach team in action learning. New Directions for Adult & Continuing Education, v. 87, p. 43-52.

Rager, K. B. (2003). The self-directed learning of women with breast cancer. Adult Education Quarterly. v. 53, no. 4, p. 277-293.

Wade, S. & Hammick, M. (1999). Action learning circles: Action learning in theory and practice. Teaching in Higher Education, v. 4, p. 163-179.

Yorks, L. (2000). The emergence of action learning. Training and Development, v. 54, p. 56.